Glossary

Definitions of the theological and scholarly terms used across this site. Click any term to jump to its entry, or browse alphabetically.

A

Adoptionism

The view that Jesus was a normal human being who was "adopted" as God's Son at a particular moment — most commonly his baptism (cf. Mark 1:9–11) or resurrection (cf. Acts 13:33; Romans 1:4). A recurring Christological category in early Christianity, distinct from Dynamic Monarchianism, though the two are sometimes conflated in secondary literature.

Angel (מַלְאָך / ἄγγελος)

From Hebrew malʼakh (מַלְאָך) and Greek angelos (ἄγγελος), both meaning simply "messenger." The word does not inherently denote a supernatural being — it is used in the OT for both human messengers (2 Sam 11:19; Hag 1:13) and divine agents. The "angel of the LORD" in the OT speaks and acts with God's full authority, sometimes even speaking as God in the first person (Gen 22:11–12; Exod 3:2–6), because in Jewish agency the messenger represents the sender. This is significant for the Christophany debate: Trinitarians and Logos theologians often identify these appearances as the pre-incarnate Christ, while Biblical Unitarians read them as God acting through his agents — exactly what the word "angel" means. See also Shaliach and Christophany.

Apollinarianism

The view (condemned at Constantinople 381) that Christ had a human body and soul but that his mind/spirit was replaced by the divine Logos.

Arianism

The position attributed to Arius of Alexandria (c. 256–336) that the Son was created by the Father, and thus "there was a time when he was not." Often conflated with all forms of subordinationism, though many who opposed Nicaea (like the homoiousians) were not Arians in this strict sense.

Aseity

The property of self-existence — existing through oneself rather than being caused by another. A foundational attribute of God in the Judeo-Christian tradition: God is uncaused, self-sufficient, and depends on nothing outside himself for his existence. All three Christological positions on this site affirm God's aseity. The debate is whether the Son shares it: Trinitarians say yes (the Son is co-eternal and self-existent); Logos theologians say the Father alone has aseity while the Son's existence derives from the Father; Biblical Unitarians agree with the Logos position on this point — only the Father is the self-existent God.

C

Cappadocian Fathers

Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Gregory of Nyssa — three 4th-century theologians who were instrumental in formulating the doctrine that God is one essence (ousia) in three persons (hypostaseis), which became the basis for the Council of Constantinople (381).

Chalcedon

The Council of Chalcedon (AD 451), which defined the "two natures" doctrine: Christ is fully God and fully human, with the two natures united "without confusion, without change, without division, without separation."

Christophany

An appearance of Christ (or the pre-incarnate Logos) in the Old Testament. Trinitarians and Logos theologians often identify OT theophanies as christophanies. Biblical Unitarians reject this as anachronistic reading, preferring to understand these appearances through the existing lens of Jewish agency and the meaning of the word "angel" — Hebrew malʼakh (מַלְאָך), Greek angelos (ἄγγελος) — which simply means "messenger," not a supernatural being. An "angel of the LORD" is a messenger sent by God, acting and speaking with God's authority without being God. See also Shaliach.

Comma Johanneum

A disputed passage in 1 John 5:7–8 that explicitly mentions "the Father, the Word, and the Holy Ghost: and these three are one." Absent from all Greek manuscripts before the 16th century, it is now recognized by virtually all scholars as a later interpolation.

D

Docetism

The view that Christ only appeared to have a human body and to suffer, but was actually purely divine. Rejected by all four positions presented on this site.

Doxology

A liturgical formula of praise to God. NT doxologies directed to or through Jesus are significant evidence in debates about early Christian worship practice.

Dynamic Monarchianism

An early Christological position holding that God is one person (the Father) and that Jesus was a human being uniquely empowered by God's Spirit. "Dynamic" refers to the divine power (dynamis) operating through Jesus. Paul of Samosata is the most prominent historical representative. Modern Biblical Unitarianism is broadly in this tradition.

E

Ebionism

An early Jewish-Christian movement that regarded Jesus as the Messiah but rejected his divinity and virgin birth. The name derives from Hebrew evyon (אֶבְיוֹן), meaning "poor" — likely a self-designation reflecting the community's voluntary poverty (cf. "blessed are the poor"). Despite later church fathers attributing the movement to a founder named "Ebion," no such person is attested in any early source; the name almost certainly refers to the group's character, not an individual. They kept Jewish law and used only the Gospel of Matthew. Closely related to Adoptionism. Sometimes cited as evidence that the earliest Jewish Christians did not consider Jesus divine.

Eisegesis

Reading meaning into a text (importing assumptions), as opposed to exegesis (drawing meaning out of the text).

Eternal generation

The Trinitarian doctrine that the Son is eternally "begotten" by the Father — not created at a point in time, but perpetually generated within the Godhead. Distinguishes the Son from created beings while maintaining his derived relationship to the Father.

Eutychianism

The view (condemned at Chalcedon 451) that Christ's human nature was absorbed into his divine nature, resulting in a single, mixed nature.

Exegesis

Drawing meaning out of a text through careful analysis of its language, grammar, historical context, and literary genre.

Functional Christology

An approach that defines Jesus' identity in terms of what he does (his role, function, authority) rather than what he is (his ontological nature). Biblical Unitarians often argue that NT Christology is primarily functional, and that asking "Is Jesus God?" misses the point the NT authors are trying to make, since they seem to be concerned primarily with proclaiming Jesus to be the exalted King/Lord, God's Messiah.

H

Hermeneutics

The theory and methodology of interpretation, especially of biblical texts. How you read matters as much as what you read.

Homoiousios (ὁμοιούσιος)

"Of similar substance." The position held by the homoiousian party in the 4th century, who affirmed the Son was genuinely divine and like the Father in essence, but stopped short of saying "identical" substance. Often closer to pre-Nicene Logos Theology than to either Nicaea or Arianism.

Homoousios (ὁμοούσιος)

"Of one/same substance." The key term adopted at the Council of Nicaea (325) to express that the Son shares the same divine essence as the Father — not merely similar, but identical in being.

Hypostasis (ὑπόστασις)

Literally "that which stands under." In Trinitarian theology, it came to mean "person" — the three hypostaseis (Father, Son, Spirit) share one ousia (essence). Confusingly, in earlier usage hypostasis and ousia were near-synonyms, which caused significant controversy.

I

Interpolation

A later addition inserted into an existing text. The Comma Johanneum (1 John 5:7–8) is the most famous christological interpolation.

K

Kyrios (κύριος)

Greek for "Lord." Its usage for Jesus is debated: does it identify him with YHWH (as the Septuagint uses kyrios for God's name), or does it designate him as an exalted agent given authority by God?

Logos (λόγος)

Greek for "Word," "Reason," or "Rational Principle." In John 1:1, the term used for the pre-creation entity that "was with God and was God." Trinitarians identify the Logos as the eternal second person of the Trinity; Biblical Unitarians read it as God's plan, purpose, or wisdom personified; Logos theologians see a genuinely divine but subordinate being produced by the Father.

M

Miaphysitism

The view (held by Oriental Orthodox churches) that Christ has one united nature that is both divine and human — distinct from Eutychianism (which says the natures are mixed/absorbed) and Chalcedonian dyophysitism (which maintains two distinct natures).

Middle Platonism

The philosophical tradition (c. 80 BC – AD 220) that influenced early Christian theology, especially Logos theology. Key concepts include the distinction between the transcendent God and a mediating divine principle (Logos/Nous) through which God interacts with creation.

Modalism

The view that Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are not distinct persons but three modes or manifestations of one divine person. Also called Sabellianism (after Sabellius, c. AD 220). In modern form, this is most often represented by Oneness Pentecostalism.

Monarchianism

The umbrella term for early theologies that emphasised the "monarchy" (sole rule) of God the Father. Two types: Dynamic Monarchianism (Jesus is a spirit-empowered human) and Modalistic Monarchianism (Father, Son, and Spirit are modes of one person).

Monogenēs (μονογενής)

Usually translated "only-begotten" (KJV) or "one and only" / "unique" (modern translations). Used of Jesus in John 1:14, 18; 3:16, 18; 1 John 4:9. The translation is debated, but each of the four positions can accommodate either rendering. Trinitarians read it as supporting eternal generation within the Godhead. Logos theologians read it as the Father producing the Son before creation. Biblical Unitarians read "begotten" straightforwardly — Jesus is God's Son, uniquely conceived by God's power (Luke 1:35), the one-of-a-kind Son in a literal sense. Oneness theology commonly reads it in incarnational terms, with Son-language tied to God's manifestation in flesh rather than a second eternal person. The "uniqueness" rendering can be used by all four positions.

N

Nestorianism

The view (condemned at Ephesus 431) that Christ consisted of two separate persons — one divine, one human — loosely conjoined. Whether Nestorius himself actually held this view is debated.

Ontological

Relating to the nature of being itself. "Ontological equality" means two things share the same fundamental nature of being; "ontological subordination" means one is lesser in its very nature. A key distinction in Christology: is Jesus' subordination to the Father merely functional (role-based) or ontological (nature-based)?

Ousia (οὐσία)

Greek for "essence," "substance," or "being." In Trinitarian theology, the one shared divine ousia is what unites the three persons (hypostaseis). The Council of Nicaea declared the Son to be of the same ousia as the Father.

P

Patristic

Relating to the Church Fathers (Patres) — the influential Christian writers and theologians of roughly the 1st–8th centuries, whose works shaped Christian doctrine.

Perichoresis

"Mutual indwelling" or "co-interpenetration." The Trinitarian concept that the three persons of the Godhead mutually indwell one another, sharing a dynamic communion of being. Used to explain how three persons can be one God without confusion or separation.

Pneumatology

The study of the Holy Spirit — its nature, person, and work. Relevant to Christology because the question of whether the Spirit is a third divine person (Trinitarian) or God's power/presence (Unitarian) parallels the Christological debate.

Polish Brethren

A 16th–17th century anti-Trinitarian Christian community in Poland, influenced by Faustus Socinus. They produced the Racovian Catechism (1605) and maintained that Jesus was a human being, not a pre-existent divine person. Expelled from Poland in 1658.

Pre-Nicene

The period of Christian history before the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD. All pre-Nicene writers who maintained a real distinction between Father and Son held subordinationist views of Christ's relationship to the Father — including those with the highest Christologies, such as Ignatius of Antioch and Irenaeus of Lyon. None articulated the co-equality later defined at Nicaea. The modalists (Noetus, Praxeas, Sabellius) avoided subordinationism only by denying any real distinction between the persons. Also called "Ante-Nicene."

Proof-texting

The practice of citing isolated Bible verses to support a doctrine without attending to their literary context, original audience, or the author's broader argument. All three positions can be guilty of this.

Proskyneō (προσκυνέω)

Greek for "to bow down" or "to worship." The word is used for both worship of God and respectful obeisance to human authorities in the NT. Whether proskyneō directed at Jesus constitutes divine worship is a key point of debate.

Sabellianism

See Modalism.

Second Temple Judaism

The period and religious practice of Judaism between the rebuilding of the Temple (516 BC) and its destruction (AD 70). This is the theological world in which Jesus and the earliest Christians lived, and understanding its categories (agency, exaltation, divine intermediaries) and contemporary writings (Sirach, Wisdom of Solomon, 1 Enoch, etc.) is essential for interpreting NT Christology.

Septuagint (LXX)

The Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, produced from the 3rd century BC. The NT authors frequently quote from the LXX rather than the Hebrew text. Significant because the LXX uses kyrios (Lord) to translate the divine name YHWH, which becomes relevant when NT authors apply kyrios to Jesus.

Shaliach (שָלִיחַ)

Hebrew for "sent one" or "agent." In Jewish law, "a man's agent is as himself" — an agent speaks and acts with the full authority of the sender without being the sender. Biblical Unitarians argue this principle explains how Jesus could exercise divine authority without being God (see Exodus 23:20–22).

Shema

The foundational Jewish declaration of faith from Deuteronomy 6:4: "Hear, O Israel: the LORD our God, the LORD is one." Some scholars (notably N.T. Wright, followed by Bauckham) argue that Paul "splits" the Shema in 1 Corinthians 8:6, distributing "God" to the Father and "Lord" to Jesus, thereby including Jesus within the divine identity. This reading is relatively recent — it gained prominence only in the 1990s — and is contested. The two passages share only three words (heis, theos, kyrios), in a different order, and Paul explicitly identifies "one God" as "the Father."

Socinianism

The theological movement named after Faustus Socinus (1539–1604), who held that Jesus was a human being, not a pre-existent divine person. Socinians rejected both the Trinity and the satisfaction theory of atonement. The movement was centred among the Polish Brethren. Modern Biblical Unitarianism shares the core Christological stance.

Soteriology

The study of salvation — how it is achieved and what it involves. Relevant to Christology because different views of who Jesus is have implications for how his death functions: Does salvation require a divine sacrifice? Can a human mediator accomplish what Trinitarian soteriology claims? Each position has a different answer.

Subordinationism

The view that the Son is in some way subordinate to the Father. "Ontological subordinationism" (the Son is lesser in being) was the dominant pre-Nicene view and is rejected by post-Nicene Trinitarianism. "Functional subordinationism" (the Son willingly submits in role while being equal in essence) is accepted within mainstream Trinitarian theology, though debated.

T

Theophany

An appearance or manifestation of God. In the OT, God appears in various forms (burning bush, pillar of cloud, angelic visitors). Whether these are appearances of the pre-incarnate Logos (Trinitarian/Logos view) or of God the Father through agents (Unitarian view) is debated.

Want to know more about this project? Continue to About →